Neuroscience of the Lonely Brain

Mandated curfews, lockdowns, and isolation periods - with the resurgence of COVID-19 cases around the world over the past two years, the implementation of various infection control measures have exacerbated the mental wellbeing of the global population at a remarkable scale [1]. Historically, communicable diseases and their transmission from an affected patient to unaffected individuals have accelerated the development of preventative infection control with an unspoken acknowledgement of its repercussions for long-term mental health outcomes. For many, celebrating the holiday season this year has been a conspicuous anomaly: in fact, the inability to meaningfully reconnect with family and friends has coerced 18% of Americans to feel as if they have severed closely held social connections in their life, catalyzing what many scientists have characterized as the “Double Pandemic” [2]. 

Throughout human evolution, interpersonal dependency has manifested itself as a salient component of flourishing social relationships, and ultimately, as a pervasive modulator of cognition, life expectancy, and in some estimates, even the emergence of senescence-related neurodegenerative disorders [3]. Therefore, it may not be surprising to reconcile why the very perception of loneliness sufficiently casts a menacing shadow over the unique neural patterning signatures associated with selection pressures for sociality [4]. The nature of social exchange is a sophisticated one; encompassing higher-order neurocognitive mechanisms which allow an agent to synthesize coherent thoughts and intentions. 

Recently, however, a compelling study conducted by neuroscience researchers at McGill University has advanced some more nuanced insight into the neural correlates for unmet desires for social interactions in humans, suggesting a link with the evolution of higher-order associative cortical regions and their biological profiles. The multi-modal imaging-genetics cohort, organized by the UK BioBank initiative and constituted by 40,000 adults, elucidated how lonely individuals exhibit greater volumes of gray and distinct white matter structure, in addition to increased functional connectivity in brain regions dedicated to wakeful rest, or default mode networks (DMNs) [5]. 

Default networks, by definition, is a term used to describe a collection of several brain regions that are engaged when focus is diverted to contemplating tasks beyond the real world [6]. Conversely, it might be convenient to consider DMNs as active during periods of idled existence - whether that's daydreaming of the alternatives, resmicing over the past, or refining your expectations for the future. Implicated in the mental representation of the self and other social agents across space and time, simulating for intentions, identities, and motivations [7]. In the study, chronic abstention from intimate social connections was deemed as a significant predictor of shifted functional activity in the brain, leading the researchers to believe sustained loneliness carries broad implications for our brain’s architecture. 

The neuroscience of loneliness and its consequential implications for public health policymaking remains a dormant avenue of research. However, with novel endeavors to understand how social deprivation manifests itself as increased self-reflection in the mind, the urgency for mitigating loneliness in today’s society becomes increasingly clear. 

References

1. Greenberg, M. Do Lonely People Have Different Brains? Psychology Today - Sussex publishers [Online] 2020. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-mindful-self-express/202012/do-lonely-people-have-different-brains 

2. Holt-Lunstad, J. The Double Pandemic Of Social Isolation And COVID-19: Cross-Sector Policy Must Address Both. Health Affairs Forefront Blog - Project Hope [Online] 2020. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20200609.53823 

3. Spreng, R. The default network of the human brain is associated with perceived social isolation. Nature Communications - Springer Nature [Online] 2020. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20039-w 

4. Spreng, R. "Lonely brain" imaging study reveals unexpected neural patterns. New Atlas [Online] 2020. https://newatlas.com/science/loneliness-brain-imaging-study-neural-signature-default-mode/ 

5. Andrews-Hanna, J. Functional-anatomic fractionation of the brain's default network. ScienceDirect - Neuron Cell Press [Online] 2010. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20188659/ 

6. Allen, S. The associations between loneliness, social exclusion and pain in the general population. ScienceDirect - Journal of Psychiatric Research [Online] 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32791383/ 

7. Mars, R. On the relationship between the “default mode network” and the “social brain”. Human Cognitive Neuroscience - Frontiers Media [Online] 2012. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00189/full

8. McCrimmon, K. Loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic: Fight it with kindness. UCHealth Today Digest - UCHealth Publishers [Online] 2020. https://www.uchealth.org/today/loneliness-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-fight-it-with-kindness/

Changing Habits With Activity Dependent Neural Plasticity

Changing one’s habits and the most action-oriented approaches to doing so has remained an age-old question yielding a diverse array of answers. Perhaps, the idea that your brain is in a perpetual state of change is something you have encountered previously, through a television show, a book, or maybe even as you peruse the local newspaper. At first, notions pertaining to this scientific phenomenon, known as activity-dependent neural plasticity, may come across as slightly contradictory: all throughout our schooling years, we’ve been told that our brains are subject to the modular outputs of a dynamic biochemical environment prevailing within our brain’s cells after all. So how could it be that these ostensibly inanimate ions, voltage-gated channels, and synaptic clefts are operating independently of stimuli perception? 

Recent advancements within the realm of neuroscience have conferred mankind with a uniquely nuanced insight into the intricate mechanisms facilitating neural modulation. Analogous to how your plastic water bottle warps in conformity to direct sunlight, scientists have recently discovered that our brain is increasingly implicated by everything occurring in transcendence of our subconscious thought: every single observation, interaction, smell, sight… as it turns out, there is not much information that goes unnoticed by our minds [1]. Contemporary neuroimaging techniques have served to capture the extent of this dynamic rewiring that prevails within each of our brains; this redefines our collective approach to the interplay between the mind, brain, and body necessary to ensure the fruition of our consciousness [2]. 

What exactly does this information mean for us, as individual agents embedded within the crosshairs of highly developed sociocultural institutions around the world? Like many other things prominent within our day-to-day lives, neural plasticity can be reverse engineered to promote only the most positive feelings within people: namely, contentment, satisfaction, and ultimately, serve to provide such individuals with a way of altering their negative habits. For instance, the persistent practice of one’s desired habits under a number of different conditions has the potential to change the functional activity of neurons across the brain, housing over 100 billion neurons which strive to communicate across 100 trillion synaptic connections [3]. Contemporary somatic therapeutic interventions, predicated upon the functioning of neural plasticity mechanisms to incite positive development, can be revitalized by the maintenance of a persistently positive personal state with repeated practice and a defined goal.

So the next time your mother scolds you for habitually consuming your fingernails, or falls victim to the notion that it simply is not possible to develop a highly outcome-oriented habit, try to remember that you have immediate access to a dynamic community of 100 billion neurons communicating over 100 trillion gaps in space. Similar to your favorite hiking trail, the neuronal circuitry constituting the foundation of basic actions remains vulnerable to changes in one's habits, strengthening over time as the status quo is challenged with sheer willpower.

References

[1] Taylor, B. Breaking Bad Habits, With Neuroplasticity. EduGuide Developmental Biology - Lumina Foundation [Online] 2015. https://www.eduguide.org/content/2015/02/13/breaking-bad-habits-with-neuroplasticity/

[2] Foss, R. How to Change Your Behavior and The Science Behind Neuroplasticity. Kwik Learning for Academic Success [Online] 2018. https://kwiklearning.com/kwik-tips/how-to-change-your-behavior-the-science-behind-neuroplasticity/ 

[3] Ganguly, K.; Poo, M. Activity-Dependent Neural Plasticity from Bench to Bedside. Cell Neuron [Online] 2013, 86, 122-134.. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.028 

[4] Bergland, C. How Do Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis Rewire Your Brain? Psychology Today [Online] 2017. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201702/how-do-neuroplasticity-and-neurogenesis-rewire-your-brain 

Brain Training: Treating IBS Patients Through Hypnosis

If you have seen Dracula or The Jungle Book, this scene may seem familiar: a creepy hypnotist stares deeply into someone’s eyes, causing them to fall into a trancelike state. However, despite its over-romanticization in popular media, hypnotism is a legitimate phenomenon with proven psychological effects. Hypnotherapy–medical hypnosis–was declared an official form of medical treatment in the 1950s, and is widely implemented today to address a variety of conditions, including chronic pain, trauma, eating disorders, labor, asthma, and more [1]. 

In particular, hypnosis can be used to treat Irritable Bowel Syndrome, or IBS. This chronic bowel disorder affects about 15-20% of the general population, and induces painful gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits [2]. Pharmacological treatments can only address one symptom at a time; therefore, hypnotherapy offers a unique psychological treatment with holistic physical benefits. Patients typically undergo about twelve 60-minute sessions on a once-per-week basis, and are instructed to practice at home between sessions [3]. 

During a typical appointment, a patient will be inducted into the hypnotic state while focusing on muscular relaxation. Meanwhile, the hypnotherapist provides personalized suggestions to relieve symptoms [2]. For example, a patient may be asked to imagine clearing a blocked river so that it runs smoothly. This specific exercise mimics the feelings of a digestive system clearing, giving the patient the illusion of symptom relief. The overall goal of the hypnosis sessions is to familiarize the patient with their inner workings, encouraging them to develop control over bodily functions like breathing and, eventually, gastrointestinal symptoms [3]. 

Although the exact neurological effects of hypnosis vary from person to person, hypnotherapy alleviates patients’ symptoms by affecting their neural activity. In order to visualize the way hypnotherapy impacts an IBS patient’s brain activity, one can use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) responses to the distension of a rectal balloon simulating gastrointestinal discomfort. Without treatment, IBS patients normally show higher BOLD activity in brain regions associated with visceral (gut-related) signal processing and emotional arousal. However, after hypnotherapy, there was no difference in rectal balloon distension response between IBS patients and healthy patients [2]. This data can be seen in the fMRI image in the image inset: the bottom row (healthy patients) more strongly resembles the middle row (IBS patients post-hypnotherapy) than the top (IBS patients). 

BOLD responses to rectal balloon distension. From top to bottom: IBS patients, IBS patients post-hypnotherapy, healthy patients [2].

BOLD data additionally reveals that gastrointestinal discomfort was reduced as a result of hypnosis, an observation which is backed by patients themselves. A survey provided to IBS hypnotherapy patients proves that 71% of patients saw immediate symptom improvement, and 81% of these experienced prolonged symptom relief up to one year post-treatment. More specifically, these patients felt a gastrointestinal pain reduction from 58/100 to 26.4/100, which rose only to a 32.2/100 over the course of the year [4]. Therefore, hypnotherapy not only alleviates IBS symptoms, but also can have long-lasting beneficial effects on patients’ wellbeing. 

Perhaps the next time you encounter hypnosis in a movie or book, feel free to laugh along with your friends, but remember this: if you are experiencing IBS, chronic pain, or a variety of other conditions, this seemingly goofy phenomenon may be a surprising solution to your pain. 

References:

1. Simon, E.P.; James, L.C. Clinical applications of hypnotherapy in a medical setting. Hawaii Med J. 1999, 58 (12), 344-347.

2. Lowén, M.B.; Mayer, E.A.; Sjöberg, M.; et al. Effect of hypnotherapy and educational intervention on brain response to visceral stimulus in the irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013, 37 (12), 1184-1197. 

3. Lindfors, P.; Unge, P.; Arvidsson, P.; et al. Effects of gut-directed hypnotherapy on IBS in different clinical settings–results from two randomized, controlled trials. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012, 107 (2), 276-285. 

4. Gonsalkorale, W.M.; Miller, V.; Afzal, A.; Whorwell, P.J. Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome. Gut. 2003, 52 (11), 1623-1629.

5. Header source: https://www.istockphoto.com/vector/monochrome-hypnotic-spiral-gm857332236-141375005
   
   

How to Stop Unwanted Thoughts

We’ve all had our share of unpleasant experiences -- flunking a test, going through a breakup, failing an interview. Most of the time, memories of these experiences linger for a few days or weeks but eventually fade away, and we can continue with our lives stress and worry free.

However, sometimes, these unwanted thoughts constantly come back to haunt us no matter how much we try to distract ourselves or make ourselves forget them. Recently, a group of researchers at the University of Cambridge have discovered the mechanism behind why this phenomenon occurs.¹

Participants of the study memorized pairs of words containing a cue and a memory. If the cue was shown in green, the participants were told to recall the memory. If the cue was shown in red, the participants were told to block all thoughts of the memory or try to “push it out of mind.” For example, if the pair was BEACH-AFRICA and BEACH was shown in red, the participant would try to suppress thoughts about AFRICA.

During the trials, researchers imaged the participants’ brains using functional magnetic resonance imagining (fMRI) and 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). These techniques allowed researchers to track the concentration of the GABA neurotransmitter in the hippocampus, a region of the brain responsible for memory.

GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid, is a chemical that relays signals between nerve cells in the brain by acting as an inhibitory transmitter, meaning that it suppresses the activity of cells receiving the signal. The researchers found that higher concentrations of GABA in the hippocampus were associated with a better ability to suppress thoughts, both positive and negative. They hypothesize that GABA prevents retrieval of memories, which in turn suppresses unwanted thoughts.

According to the researchers, the ability to control unwanted thoughts is essential for mental health.² Most of us aren’t affected too severely by negative thoughts. However, having constant intrusive memories, thoughts, or hallucinations is a symptom characteristic of mental illnesses like anxiety, major depression, PTSD, and schizophrenia. For people struggling with mental health issues, this research presents a new approach to develop treatments that could improve their wellbeing and happiness.

References:

1. Schmitz, T. W.; Correia, M. M.; Ferreira, C. S.; Prescot, A. P.; Anderson, M. C. Nature Communications 2017, 8 (1).
2. http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/scientists-identify-mechanism-that-helps-us-inhibit-unwanted-thoughts
3. Image: https://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2016/03/04/how-to-turn-on-the-part-of-your-brain-that-controls-motivation/